InhaltsangabePREFACE xi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xiii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2 SOURCES OF ENERGY 6 2.1 Wind Power 7 2.1.1 Status 7 2.1.2 Properties 7 2.1.3 Variations in Wind Speed 8 2.1.4 Variations in Production Capacity 10 2.1.5 The Weibull Distribution of Wind Speed 20 2.1.6 Power Distribution as a Function of the Wind Speed 22 2.1.7 Distribution of the Power Production 26 2.1.8 Expected Energy Production 29 2.2 Solar Power 30 2.2.1 Status 30 2.2.2 Properties 31 2.2.3 Space Requirements 32 2.2.4 Photovoltaics 33 2.2.5 Location of the Sun in the Sky 35 2.2.6 Cloud Coverage 39 2.2.7 Seasonal Variations in Production Capacity 42 2.2.8 Fast Variations with Time 46 2.3 Combined Heat-and-Power 50 2.3.1 Status 50 2.3.2 Options for Space Heating 51 2.3.3 Properties 52 2.3.4 Variation in Production with Time 53 2.3.5 Correlation Between CHP and Consumption 56 2.4 Hydropower 59 2.4.1 Properties of Large Hydro 60 2.4.2 Properties of Small Hydro 61 2.4.3 Variation with Time 61 2.5 Tidal Power 65 2.6 Wave Power 66 2.7 Geothermal Power 67 2.8 Thermal Power Plants 68 2.9 Interface with the Grid 71 2.9.1 Direct Machine Coupling with the Grid 72 2.9.2 Full Power Electronics Coupling with the Grid 73 2.9.3 Partial Power Electronics Coupling to the Grid 75 2.9.4 Distributed Power Electronics Interface 79 2.9.5 Impact of the Type of Interface on the Power System 80 2.9.6 Local Control of Distributed Generation 81 CHAPTER 3 POWER SYSTEM PERFORMANCE 84 3.1 Impact of Distributed Generation on the Power System 84 3.1.1 Changes Taking Place 84 3.1.2 Impact of the Changes 85 3.1.3 How Severe Is This? 86 3.2 Aims of the Power System 87 3.3 Hosting Capacity Approach 88 3.4 Power Quality 91 3.4.1 Voltage Quality 92 3.4.2 Current Quality 92 3.4.3 Multiple Generator Tripping 93 3.5 Voltage Quality and Design of Distributed Generation 95 3.5.1 Normal Operation; Variations 96 3.5.2 Normal Events 96 3.5.3 Abnormal Events 97 3.6 Hosting Capacity Approach for Events 98 3.7 Increasing the Hosting Capacity 100 CHAPTER 4 OVERLOADING AND LOSSES 102 4.1 Impact of Distributed Generation 102 4.2 Overloading: Radial Distribution Networks 105 4.2.1 Active Power Flow Only 105 4.2.2 Active and Reactive Power Flow 108 4.2.3 Case Study 1: Constant Production 109 4.2.4 Case Study 2: Wind Power 110 4.2.5 Case Study 3: Wind Power with Induction Generators 111 4.2.6 Case Study 4: Solar Power with a Hotel 111 4.2.7 Minimum Consumption 115 4.3 Overloading: Redundancy and Meshed Operation 116 4.3.1 Redundancy in Distribution Networks 116 4.3.2 Meshed Operation 117 4.3.3 Redundancy in Meshed Networks 119 4.4 Losses 122 4.4.1 Case Study 1: Constant Production 124 4.4.2 Case Study 2: Wind Power 125 4.5 Increasing the Hosting Capacity 126 4.5.1 Increasing the Loadability 126 4.5.2 Building New Connections 127 4.5.3 Intertrip Schemes 127 4.5.4 Advanced Protection Schemes 128 4.5.5 Energy Management Systems 131 4.5.6 Power Electronics Approach 133 4.5.7 Demand Control 136 4.5.8 RiskBased Approaches 137 4.5.9 Prioritizing Renewable Energy 139 4.5.10 Dynamic Loadability 139 CHAPTER 5 VOLTAGE MAGNITUDE VARIATIONS 141 5.1 Impact of Distributed Generation 141 5.2 Voltage Margin and Hosting Capacity 144 5.2.1 Voltage Control in Distribution Systems 144 5.2.2 Voltage Rise Owing to Distributed Generation 146 5.2.3 Hosting Capacity 147 5.2.4 Induction Generators 149 5.2.5 Measurements to Determine the Hosting Capacity 150 5.2.6 Estimating the Hosting Capacity Without Measurements 151 5.2.7 Choosing the Overvoltage Limit 153 5.2.8 Sharing the Hosting Capacity 156 5.3 Design of Distribution Feeders 156 5.3.1 Basic Design Rules 156 5.3.2 Terminology 157 5.3.3 An Individual Generator Along a Medium-Voltage

Leseprobe

1. Introduction. 2. Sources of Energy. 2.1 Wind power. 2.2 Solar power. 2.3 Combined heat and power. 2.4 Hydropower. 2.5 Tidal Power. 2.6 Wave Power. 2.7 Geothermal Power. 2.8 Thermal Power Plants. 2.9 Interface with the grid. 3. Power system performance. 3.1 Impact of Distributed Generation on the Power System. 3.2 Aims of the power system. 3.3 Hosting Capacity Approach. 3.4 Power Quality. 3.5 Voltage Quality and Design of Distributed Generation. 3.6 Hosting capacity approach for events. 3.7 Increasing the Hosting Capacity. 4. Overloading and losses. 4.1 Impact of Distributed Generation. 4.2 Overloading: Radial Distribution Networks. 4.3 Overloading: Redundancy and Meshed Operation. 4.4 Losses. 4.5 Increasing the Hosting Capacity. 5. Voltage magnitude variations. 5.1 Impact of Distributed Generation. 5.2 Voltage Margin and Hosting Capacity. 5.3 Design of Distribution Feeders. 5.4 A Numerical Approach to Voltage Variations. 5.5 Tap-changers with line-drop-compensation. 5.6 Probabilistic Methods for Design of Distribution Feeders. 5.7 Statistical Approach to Hosting Capacity. 5.8 Increasing the Hosting Capacity. 6. Power quality disturbances. 6.1 Impact of Distributed Generation. 6.2 Fast Voltage Fluctuations. 6.3 Voltage Unbalance. 6.4 Low-Frequency Harmonics. 6.5 High-Frequency Distortion. 6.6 Voltage Dips. 6.7 Increasing the Hosting Capacity. 7. Protection. 7.1 Impact of Distributed Generation. 7.2 Overcurrent Protection. 7.3 Calculating the Faults Current. 7.4 Calculating the Hosting Capacity. 7.5 Busbar protection. 7.6 Excessive Fault Current. 7.7 Generator Protection. 7.8 Increasing the Hosting Capacity. 8. Transmission System Operation. 8.1 Impact of Distributed Generation. 8.2 Fundamentals of Transmission System Operation. 8.3 Frequency Control, Balancing, and Reserves. 8.4 Prediction of Production and Consumption. 8.5 Restoration after a Black-out. 8.6 Voltage Stability. 8.7 Kinetic Energy and Inertia Constant. 8.8 Frequency Stability. 8.9 Angular Stability. 8.10 Fault Ride-Through. 8.11 Storage. 8.12 HVDC and FACTS. 8.13 Increasing the Hosting Capacity. 9. Conclusions.